Steigerwald J.M., Murarka S.P., Gutmann R.J. Chemical Mechanical Planarization of Microelectronic Materials

Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. 2004. - 323 p.
In spite of being a historically ancient technology, chemical mechanical planarization (CMP) has never attracted so much attention as it has in the last few years. This is because of its applicability in planarizing the dielectrics and metal films used in the silicon integrated circuit (Si IC) fabrication. Continued miniaturization of the device dimensions and the related need to interconnect an increasing number of devices on a chip have led to building multilevel interconnections on planarized levels.Contents

Chemical Mechanical Planarbation-An IntroductionApplications
The CMP Process
CMPTools
Process Integration
Conclusion and Book OutlineHistorical Motivations for CMPAdvanced Metallization Schemes
Interconnect Delay Impact on Performance
Methods of Reducing Interconnect Delay
Planarity Requirements for Multilevel Metallization
Planarization Schemes
Smoothing and Local Planarization
Global Planarization
CMP Planarization
Advantages of CMP
Disadvantages of CMP
The Challenge of CMPCMP Variables and ManipulationsOutput Variables
Input VariablesMechanical and Electrochemical Concepts for CMPPreston Equation
Fluid Layer Interactions
Boundary Layer Interactions
Fluid Boundary Layer
Double Layer
Metal Surface Films
Mechanical Abrasion
Abrasion Modes
Polishing vs. Grinding
Hertzian Indentation vs. Fluid-Based Wear
Abrasion Modes
The Polishing Pad
Pad Materials and Properties
Pad Conditioning
Electrochemical Phenomena
Reduction-Oxidation Reactions
Pourbaix Diagrams
Mixed Potential Theory
Example: Copper CMP in NH3-Based Slurries
Example: Copper-Titanium Interaction
Role of Chemistry in CMP
AbrasivesOxide CMP Processes-Mechanisms and ModelsThe Role of Chemistry in Oxide Polishing
Glass Polishing Mechanisms
The Role of Water in Oxide Polishing
Chemical Interactions Between Abrasive and Oxide Surface
Oxide CMP in Practice
Polish Rate Results
Planarkation Results
CMP in Manufacturing
Yield IssuesTungsten and CMP ProcessesInlaid Metal Patterning
RIE Etch Back
Metal CMP
Tungsten CMP
Surface Passivation Model for Tungsten CMP
Tungsten CMP ProcessesCopperCMPProposed Model for Copper CMP
Surface Layer Formation-Planarkation
Formation of Native Surface Films
Formation of Nonnative Cu-BTA Surface Film
Material Dissolution
Removal of Abraded Material
Increasing Solubility with Complexing Agent
Increasing Dissolution Rate with Oxidizing Agents
Chemical Aspect of the Copper CMP Model
Preston Equation
Preston Coefficient
Polish Rates
Comparison of K_P Values
Polish-Induced Stress
Pattern Geometry Effects
Dishing and Erosion in CuSiO₂, System
Optimization of Process to Minimize Dishing and ErosionCMP of Other Materials and New CMP ApplicationsThe Front-End Applications in Silicon IC Fabrication
Polysilicon CMP for Deep Trench Capacitor Fabrication
Shallow Trench Isolation
CMP of Polysilicon Films
CMP of Photoresists
CMP in Fabricating Superconducting Circuits
Planarizing Al and Al Alloys
Planarization of Diffusion Barriers/Adhesion Promoters
CMP of Advanced Interlevel Dielectric Materials: Polymers
Polymer CMP
Inlaid Metal CMP with Polymer ILDs
Other ApplicationsPost-CMP CleanupDirect Generation and Microcontamination
Particle Removal
Microcontamination and Chemical DefectsAppendix-Problem Sets